츨처:
THE LATE PALEOLITHIC-NEOLITHIC TRANSITION IN KOREA: CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND RADIOCARBON PERSPECTIVES
한국의 후기 구석기–신석기 전환: 최신 고고학·방사성탄소 관점.
- Christopher J Bae
Department of Anthropology, University of Hawai’i, 2424 Maile Way, Saunders Hall 346, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA. Corresponding author. Email: cjbae@hawaii.edu. - 크리스토퍼 J. 배. 하와이대학교 인류학과, 2424 Maile Way, Saunders Hall 346, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA. 교신저자: cjbae@hawaii.edu.
- Jong Chan Kim. School of Physics, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea. Email: jckim@phya.snu.ac.kr.
- 김종찬. 서울대학교 물리학부, 서울 151-742, 대한민국. 이메일: jckim@phya.snu.ac.kr.
ABSTRACT
The application of chronometric dating studies in Korean archaeology has lagged behind similar research in China and Japan. The focus of this article is to provide an update on the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates derived from Korean Paleolithic and Early Neolithic sites. One of the major highlights from recent AMS 14C studies in Korea is that blade (and microblade) technologies may have diffused directly from Siberia, rather than through northern China as originally thought. In addition, a Neolithic wooden boat has been discovered in Korea that is as old as, if not older than, similar discoveries from eastern China. More detailed archaeological and chronometric studies in Korea in the coming years will certainly clarify many of the points mentioned here. In particular, through more detailed studies, we will be able to further evaluate the causal factors that provided the impetus for the Late Paleolithic-Neolithic transition in Korea.
한국 고고학에서 연대측정(연대학) 연구의 적용은 중국과 일본에 비해 뒤처져 왔다. 이 글은 한국의 구석기·초기 신석기 유적에서 얻은 가속기질량분석(AMS) 기반 방사성탄소(14C) 연대 자료를 최신으로 정리하는 데 초점을 둔다. 한국 최근 AMS 14C 연구의 핵심 성과 가운데 하나는 돌날(및 좀돌날) 기술이 당초 생각과 달리 중국 북부를 거치지 않고 시베리아에서 한국으로 직접 확산했을 가능성이다. 또한 한국에서는 동중국의 유사 사례에 견줄 만큼 오래되었거나 그보다 더 이를 수 있는 신석기 목선이 발견되었다. 앞으로 한국에서 더 정밀한 고고학·연대학 연구가 진행되면 여기서 언급한 여러 쟁점이 분명해질 것이다. 특히 더 세밀한 연구를 통해 한국의 후기 구석기–신석기 전환을 촉발한 인과 요인들을 더 잘 평가할 수 있을 것이다.
INTRODUCTION
The application of chronometric dating studies in Korean archaeology has lagged behind similar research in China and Japan. For example, Ono et al. (2002) published several hundred radiocarbon dates from various Japanese Paleolithic sites, while only 29 14C dates were reported in the same issue of Radiocarbon for Korean Paleolithic sites (Bae 2002). The focus of this article is to provide an update on the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates derived from Korean Paleolithic and Early Neolithic sites (see also Bae and Kim 2003). Updated 14C dates for the Korean Middle Neolithic to Bronze Age are provided in our other contribution in this issue (Kim and Bae 2010). Most of the AMS 14C dates reported here were analyzed directly by the AMS laboratory at Seoul National University (SNU-AMS), with other data culled from the published literature. Because of the paucity of interaction between North and South Korean scholars, relatively little is known currently about recent developments in North Korean archaeological research (Norton 2000a). Thus, our discussion focuses on the South Korean record.
한국 고고학에서 연대학 연구의 적용은 중국과 일본에 비해 뒤처져 왔다. 예컨대 Ono 외(2002)는 일본 여러 구석기 유적에서 수백 건의 방사성탄소 연대를 발표했지만, 같은 호에 실린 한국 구석기 유적의 14C 연대는 29건에 불과했다(Bae 2002). 이 글은 한국의 구석기 및 초기 신석기 유적에서 얻은 AMS 14C 연대를 최신으로 업데이트하는 데 초점을 둔다(Bae and Kim 2003도 참조). 한국의 중기 신석기부터 청동기에 이르는 갱신된 14C 연대는 같은 호의 우리의 다른 논문(Kim and Bae 2010)에 제시했다. 여기 보고하는 AMS 14C 연대의 대부분은 서울대학교 AMS 실험실(SNU-AMS)에서 직접 분석했으며, 일부는 기존 문헌에서 취했다. 남북 학계 간 교류가 부족하기 때문에 북한 고고학의 최근 동향은 상대적으로 파악이 미진하다(Norton 2000a). 따라서 본 논의는 남한의 자료에 중점을 둔다.
Late Paleolithic. 후기 구석기.
Traditionally, in Korean archaeology the Paleolithic is divided into a 3-stage sequence: Lower, Middle, and Upper, similar to what has been done in China (Ikawa-Smith 1978; Norton 2000a; Gao and Norton 2002; Bae 2002, 2010). However, due to the absence of a distinctive behavioral pattern that would support a “Middle Paleolithic” in Korea (e.g. development of the Levallois technique in most of the western Old World), we suggest the Korean Paleolithic be divided into an Early and Late period, with the division occurring when blade stone tool technologies appear in the Korean Peninsula. When exactly this division occurred in Korea is still a subject of much debate (Bae 2010). Traditionally, the lithics from Sokchangni were often considered to represent the division between the Early and Late Paleolithic, with the boundary occurring around 30,000 BP. However, based on new AMS 14C studies, it is now likely that blade tool technologies appeared in Korea possibly as early as 38,000 BP, as evidence from sites like Yonghodong, Deokso, Hwaderi, and Wolpyeong indicate (Table 1). Of interest here is that Korean Paleolithic researchers often consider blade technology to have reached Korea from Siberia via the Shuidonggou site in northern China (Bae 2010). The problem that arises with this model is that Shuidonggou is now considered to date to 29,000–24,000 BP (Madsen et al. 2001), thus well postdating the earliest appearance of blade technology in the Korean Peninsula (see also Norton and Jin 2009 for discussion).1 If the AMS 14C dates from Yonghodong, Deokso, Hwaderi, and Wolpyeong hold up to further scientific scrutiny, it may be possible that blade technology diffused directly from Siberia to Korea skirting China. It should be noted that a small number of Korean scholars (e.g. Seong 2006) argue that blade technology developed indigenously (but see Bae 2010 for critique of this argument).
한국 고고학에서는 중국과 마찬가지로 구석기를 하·중·상 3단계로 구분해 왔다(Ikawa-Smith 1978; Norton 2000a; Gao and Norton 2002; Bae 2002, 2010). 그러나 한국에는 ‘중기 구석기’를 뒷받침할 뚜렷한 행동 양식(서구 구세계에서의 르발루아 기법 발달 등)이 결여되어 있으므로, 한반도에 돌날 석기 기술이 출현하는 시점을 경계로 전기–후기 이단계로 나누는 것이 타당하다고 본다. 이 경계가 한국에서 정확히 언제인지는 여전히 논쟁적이다(Bae 2010). 전통적으로 속창리 석기가 전·후기의 경계를 가르는 지표로 여겨져 경계를 대략 30,000 BP로 잡았지만, 새로운 AMS 14C 연구에 따르면 용호동·덕소·화대리·월평 같은 유적(표 1)의 증거로 보아 돌날 기술은 한국에서 38,000 BP만큼 이를 수도 있다. 흔히 돌날 기술이 중국 북부의 수동구(Shuidonggou)를 경유해 시베리아에서 한국으로 전래된 것으로 가정되어 왔지만(Bae 2010), 수동구의 연대는 현재 29,000–24,000 BP로 파악되며(Madsen 외 2001), 이는 한반도에서 돌날 기술이 가장 이르게 나타난 시점보다 훨씬 늦다(자세한 논의는 Norton and Jin 2009). 만약 용호동·덕소·화대리·월평의 AMS 14C 연대가 추가 검증을 견딘다면, 돌날 기술은 중국을 우회해 시베리아에서 한국으로 직접 확산했을 가능성이 있다. 한편 소수의 한국 연구자들(예: Seong 2006)은 돌날 기술이 토착적으로 발달했다고 주장하지만, 이에 대한 비판은 Bae(2010)를 보라.
Another interesting aspect of the Korean Late Paleolithic is that the well-known traditional core and flake tools (Norton et al. 2006) continue to appear in Korea up through the end of the Pleistocene (Bae 2010), a case not unlike China (Chen et al. 2010), particularly southern China (Norton and Jin 2009). It is not clear whether the presence of traditional core and flake technologies in Korea represent population movements from southern China as recently argued by Bae (2010) or represent continuous occupation of the region by the same foraging groups. The more parsimonious explanation is that the pattern represents similar foraging groups moving around the Korean Peninsula during the Late Paleolithic. Irrespective of which model is correct, the boundary between the Early and Late Paleolithic in Korea now appears to be pushed back to between 40,000–35,000 BP.
한국 후기 구석기의 또 다른 흥미로운 점은, 잘 알려진 전통적 핵석·박편 공구군(Norton 외 2006)이 플라이스토세 말까지 한국에서 계속 나타난다는 것이다(Bae 2010). 이는 중국—특히 중국 남부—의 양상과도 유사하다(Chen 외 2010; Norton and Jin 2009). 한국에서 이러한 핵석·박편 기술의 존재가 Bae(2010)가 주장하듯 중국 남부에서의 인구 이동을 반영하는지, 아니면 동일한 수렵채집 집단의 지역 내 지속 점유를 반영하는지는 분명하지 않다. 보다 간명한 설명은 후기 구석기 동안 유사한 수렵채집 집단이 한반도 곳곳을 이동했다는 것이다. 어느 모델이 옳든, 한국의 전기–후기 구석기 경계는 이제 대략 40,000–35,000 BP로 앞당겨진 것으로 보인다.
Early Neolithic. 초기 신석기.
The nature of the Korean Paleolithic to Neolithic transition is poorly understood, though discussion of the Incipient Neolithic (~10,000–8000 BP) has been included in a number of recent reviews of the Korean Neolithic (e.g. Choe and Bale 2002; Norton 2007). One factor that should be included in any discussion of the Late Paleolithic-Neolithic transition in Korea is the effect of paleobathymetric variation.
한국의 구석기에서 신석기로의 전환 양상은 아직 충분히 이해되지 않았다. 다만 ‘발단(萌芽) 신석기’(약 10,000–8,000 BP)에 대한 논의는 한국 신석기에 관한 최근 종합들에서 계속 다루어져 왔다(Choe and Bale 2002; Norton 2007). 한국의 후기 구석기–신석기 전환을 논할 때 반드시 포함되어야 할 요소가 고(古) 수심지형 변화의 영향이다.
For example, Korean geologists (e.g. Park 2001) have suggested that during the last glacial maximum (LGM; marine isotope stage 2: MIS 2), ocean levels may have dropped as much as 140 m. A bathymetric drop of this magnitude would have lead to a drying up of much of the West Sea/Yellow Sea that currently separates eastern China and the Korean Peninsula. Thus, during the LGM much of that region would have been dry land and would have allowed population movement throughout much of the area (as reviewed by Norton 2007). However, when the climate warmed during the late MIS 2–1 transition sea levels rose and eventually reached the present level.
예컨대 한국 지질학자들(예: Park 2001)은 최종빙기 절정기(LGM; 해양동위원소 단계 2, MIS 2)에 해수면이 최대 140m까지 낮아졌을 수 있다고 제안했다. 이 정도 규모의 수심 하강은 오늘날 동중국과 한반도를 가르는 서해/황해의 상당 부분을 육지로 드러나게 했을 것이다. 따라서 LGM 동안 그 지역의 많은 부분이 육지였고, 이로 인해 광범한 인구 이동이 가능했을 것이다(Norton 2007 종합 참조). 그러나 MIS 2–1 후기에 기후가 온난해지면서 해수면이 상승했고, 결국 현재 수준에 이르렀다.
A rise in the bathymetric levels in the region would have led to a necessary decrease in the amount of territory a foraging group could have utilized. This point has been argued by one of us (Norton 2007) to indicate that foraging groups would have become territorially circumscribed and probably provided at least some of the impetus to settle down and begin at least a semi-sedentary lifestyle, eventually leading to full-scale sedentism. It is well-known in Korean archaeology that by the Early Neolithic (~8000 BP), sedentary villages appear in many regions along the coasts and riverways (Nelson 1993; Norton 2000b, 2007; Choe and Bale 2002).
이 지역의 수위 상승은 수렵채집 집단이 활용할 수 있는 활동 영역의 축소를 초래했을 것이다. 우리 중 한 사람(Norton 2007)은 이러한 제약이 수렵채집 집단을 영토적으로 한정하게 만들었고, 적어도 반(半)정착으로의 전환에 일정한 동인을 제공하여 결국 본격 정착생활로 이어졌을 수 있다고 논했다. 한국 고고학에서는 초기 신석기(약 8,000 BP) 무렵이면 해안과 하천 유역 곳곳에 정착 마을이 출현했다는 사실이 잘 알려져 있다(Nelson 1993; Norton 2000b, 2007; Choe and Bale 2002).
Korean Neolithic peoples’ subsistence strategies are often considered to have been broad-spectrum, in that they collected local nuts and plants, hunted wild boar and deer, and utilized resources from the sea and air (Sample 1974; Sohn 1982; An 1991, 1994; Nelson 1993; Norton et al. 1999; Norton 2000b, 2007; Lee 2001; Choe and Bale 2002). There is growing evidence that by the Middle Neolithic, Korean peoples were harvesting plant domesticates on a small scale (Crawford and Lee 2003; An 2004). Indirect evidence for a change in subsistence strategies is present in the change in artifact patterning with the advent of the Incipient Neolithic. For example, fluted projectile points, microblades, and pottery were excavated together at the Kosanni site, the type site for the Incipient Neolithic in Korea. The artifacts may indicate a heavier emphasis on hunting, while the introduction of pottery suggests a heavier reliance on stored food items.
한국 신석기인의 생업 전략은 흔히 ‘광범위 스펙트럼’으로 이해된다. 이는 토착 견과와 식물을 채집하고 멧돼지와 사슴을 사냥하며 바다와 하늘의 자원도 활용했다는 뜻이다(Sample 1974; Sohn 1982; An 1991, 1994; Nelson 1993; Norton 외 1999; Norton 2000b, 2007; Lee 2001; Choe and Bale 2002). 중기 신석기에 이르면 소규모로 재배 식물을 수확했다는 증거가 늘어난다(Crawford and Lee 2003; An 2004). 생업 전략 변화의 간접 증거는 발단 신석기의 도래와 함께 나타난 유물 양상의 변화에서 확인된다. 예컨대 한국 발단 신석기의 모식 유적인 고산리에서 홈줄기 투창촉, 좀돌날, 토기가 함께 출토되었다. 이 유물 조합은 사냥 비중의 증대를 시사하며, 토기의 도입은 저장 식량에 대한 의존도가 커졌음을 시사한다.
One major change between the Late Paleolithic and Neolithic in Korea is the appearance of shell middens along the coasts and major river basins. Because shell is very basic in terms of its alkalinity, bone preservation at these sites is excellent. Thus, we know that Neolithic peoples, in addition to collecting a diversity of shellfish, were hunting birds, fishing, and hunting deep-sea mammals. However, it was not until recently that Korean archaeologists found actual evidence of how Neolithic peoples were capable of deep-sea fishing and hunting. Evidence of a wooden boat was discovered during excavations at the Bibongri site, a Neolithic-Bronze Age open-air site located along the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula (Park et al. 2010). Because of the excellent preservation of biological materials at the site, in addition to parts of a wooden boat, many different types of seeds and animal bones were discovered. The AMS 14C dates taken directly from samples of the Bibongri boat indicate it may be as old as ~6800 BP (Table 1). Assuming the AMS 14C dates from Bibongri hold up to further scientific evaluation, the Bibongri boat may be as old as or older than the Neolithic boat from Kuahuqiao (Jiang 2004), which was excavated in eastern China near the Hemudu site. Further studies of the Bibongri site and materials will certainly clarify the position and significance of Bibongri within the East Asian Neolithic. It should be noted that watercraft technology was clearly known in the region going back at least ~40,000–35,000 yr ago (Ikawa-Smith 2008; Norton and Jin 2009; Norton et al. 2010).
한국에서 후기 구석기와 신석기의 큰 변화 중 하나는 해안과 주요 하천 유역에 패총이 등장한다는 점이다. 패류는 알칼리성이 강하기 때문에 이들 유적에서는 뼈 보존 상태가 매우 좋다. 이에 따라 신석기인들이 다양한 조개류를 채집했을 뿐 아니라, 조류를 사냥하고 어로 활동을 했으며 심해성 해양포유류도 사냥했다는 사실을 알 수 있다. 다만 신석기인들이 심해성 어로·수렵을 어떻게 수행했는지를 보여 주는 직접 증거는 최근에야 확인되었다. 한반도 남해안에 위치한 신석기–청동기 시기의 노지 유적인 비봉리에서 목선의 증거가 확인되었기 때문이다(Park 외 2010). 이 유적은 유기물 보존 상태가 뛰어나, 목선의 일부와 더불어 여러 종류의 씨앗과 동물 뼈가 다수 출토되었다. 비봉리 목선에서 직접 채취한 시료의 AMS 14C 연대는 이 배가 약 6800 BP만큼 이를 수 있음을 보여 준다(표 1). 이 연대가 추가 과학적 평가를 견딘다면, 비봉리 배는 동중국 하무두 인근에서 발굴된 콰후차오(Kuahuqiao) 신석기 배(Jiang 2004)와 같거나 그보다 더 이를 수도 있다. 비봉리 유적과 유물에 대한 후속 연구는 동아시아 신석기에서 비봉리의 위상과 의미를 분명히 해 줄 것이다. 또한 이 지역에서 수상 교통 기술은 적어도 약 40,000–35,000년 전까지 거슬러 올라간다는 점도 주목해야 한다(Ikawa-Smith 2008; Norton and Jin 2009; Norton 외 2010).
DISCUSSION
Multidisciplinary approaches are critical to addressing broader ranging archaeological questions. Of the various disciplines usually involved, chronometric studies play an important role in contextualizing archaeological data. One of the major highlights from recent AMS 14C studies in Korea is that blade (and microblade) technologies may have diffused directly from Siberia, rather than through northern China as originally thought. In addition, Korea has evidence of a Neolithic wooden boat that is as old as if not older than similar material from eastern China. More detailed archaeological and chronometric studies in Korea in the coming years will certainly clarify many of the points mentioned here. In particular, through more detailed studies, we will be able to further evaluate the causal factors that provided the impetus for the Late Paleolithic-Neolithic transition in Korea.
광범위한 고고학적 질문에 답하기 위해서는 다학제적 접근이 필수적이다. 그 가운데서도 연대학 연구는 고고 자료를 맥락화하는 데 중요한 역할을 한다. 한국에서 최근의 AMS 14C 연구가 보여 준 핵심 성과 중 하나는 돌날(및 좀돌날) 기술이 당초 생각과 달리 중국 북부를 경유하지 않고 시베리아에서 곧장 확산했을 가능성이다. 또한 한국에는 동중국의 유사 사례에 못지않게 오래된 신석기 목선의 증거가 있다. 앞으로 한국에서 더 정밀한 고고학·연대학 연구가 진행되면 본문에서 언급한 여러 쟁점이 분명해질 것이다. 특히 더욱 세밀한 연구를 통해 한국의 후기 구석기–신석기 전환을 추동한 인과 요인들을 더 잘 평가할 수 있을 것이다.
Table 1 Compilation of Korean Paleolithic and Neolithic 14C dates published between 2002–2008. (Continued)
표 1 2002–2008년 사이에 발표된 한국 구석기 및 신석기 14C 연대 자료 모음(계속).
a. m asl = 해발고도(meters above sea level).
b 광자극루미네선스(OSL)로 연대측정함.
| Site | Coordinates (N Lat, E Long) | Sample position | Date (BP) | Lab code | Material | Culture | Reference |
| Yongbang | 36.31′, 127.27′ | 1st cultural layer (33 m asl) | 25,430 ± 200 | SNU06-562 | charcoal | Early/Late Paleolithic? | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Yongbang | 36.31′, 127.27′ | 1st cultural layer | 22,700 ± 200 | SNU06-563 | charcoal | Early/Late Paleolithic? | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Yongbang | 36.31′, 127.27′ | 2nd cultural layer | 35,500 ± 800 | SNU06-559 | charcoal | Early/Late Paleolithic? | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Yongbang | 36.31′, 127.27′ | 32.5 m asl | 43,000 ± 4000 | — | BC (OSL) | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Yongbang | 36.31′, 127.27′ | 29.8 m asl | 59,000 ± 4000 | — | BC (OSL) | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Deokso | 37.35′, 127.13′ | layer 1 | 21,670 ± 100 | SNU06-379 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Yang et al. 2008 |
| Deokso | 37.35′, 127.13′ | layer 2 | 18,400 ± 400 | SNU06-005 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Yang et al. 2008 |
| Deokso | 37.35′, 127.13′ | layer 3 | 26,320 ± 200 | SNU06-294 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Yang et al. 2008 |
| Deokso | 37.35′, 127.13′ | layer 3 | 36,800 ± 200 | SNU06-002 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Yang et al. 2008 |
| Deokso | 37.35′, 127.13′ | layer 3 | 37,300 ± 200 | SNU06-001 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Yang et al. 2008 |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 20,960 ± 80 | SNU03-568 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 25,420 ± 190 | SNU03-569 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 18,500 ± 300 | SNU03-912 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 21,760 ± 190 | SNU03-913 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 25,500 ± 1000 | SNU03-914 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Sinbuk | 34.41′, 126.55′ | 18,540 ± 270 | SNU03-915 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004a | |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | 19,700 ± 300 | SNU06-971 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Cheon and Lee 2008 | |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | 19,500 ± 200 | SNU06-972 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Cheon and Lee 2008 | |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 22 cm | 4,100 ± 60 | SNU06-962 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 39 cm | 12,700 ± 100 | SNU06-963 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 56 cm | 12,700 ± 100 | SNU06-964 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 76 cm | 26,700 ± 160 | SNU06-965 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 96 cm | 20,100 ± 600 | SNU06-966 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 122 cm | 23,300 ± 500 | SNU06-967 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 138 cm | 25,300 ± 400 | SNU06-968 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 165 cm | 34,900 ± 400 | SNU06-969 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Haga | 35.38′, 127.22′ | Depth 185 cm | 29,000 ± 80 | SNU06-970 | paleosol | — | Cheon and Lee 2008 |
| Wolpyeong | 34.52′, 127.38′ | 1st cultural layer | 21,500 ± 300 | SNU05-686 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004b |
| Wolpyeong | 34.52′, 127.38′ | 18,200 ± 100 | SNU05-687 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004b | |
| Wolpyeong | 34.52′, 127.38′ | 2nd cultural layer | 27,500 ± 150 | SNU05-688 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004b |
| Wolpyeong | 34.52′, 127.38′ | 2nd cultural layer | 36,000 ± 400 | SNU05-689 | paleosol | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2004b |
| Janggi | 37.40′, 126.38′ | >50,000 | SNU05-703 | charcoal | Early Paleolithic | Jeon 2008 | |
| Janggi | 37.40′, 126.38′ | >50,000 | SNU05-704 | charcoal | Early Paleolithic | Jeon 2008 | |
| Janggi | 37.40′, 126.38′ | >50,000 | SNU05-705 | charcoal | Early Paleolithic | Jeon 2008 | |
| Janggi | 37.40′, 126.38′ | 43,000 ± 3500 | SNU05-706 | charcoal | Early Paleolithic | Jeon 2008 | |
| Kihwari Cave | 37.20′, 128.24′ | 28,400 ± 200 | SNU07-921 | sediment | Late Paleolithic | Park et al. 2007 | |
| Kihwari Cave | 37.20′, 128.24′ | 29,700 ± 400 | SNU07-922 | animal bone | Late Paleolithic | Park et al. 2007 | |
| Kihwari Cave | 37.20′, 128.24′ | 20,500 ± 300 | SNU07-923 | animal bone | Late Paleolithic | Park et al. 2007 | |
| Silokdong | 36.47′, 127.01′ | 25,750 ± 90 | SNU05-243 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Han and Huh 2006 | |
| Silokdong | 36.47′, 127.01′ | 31,170 ± 140 | SNU05-244 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Han and Huh 2006 | |
| Silokdong | 36.47′, 127.01′ | 37,460 ± 90 | SNU05-245 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Han and Huh 2006 | |
| Daejeongdong | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee et al. 2002 | ||||
| Daejeongdong | SNU?? | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee et al. 2002 | |||
| Mansuri | 36.37′, 127.19′ | >50,000 | SNU06-811 | charcoal | Early Paleolithic | Lee 2006 | |
| Mansuri | 36.37′, 127.19′ | 5th layer | 92,000 ± 3000 | — | — | OSL | Lee 2006 |
| Mansuri | 36.37′, 127.19′ | 6th layer | 95,000 ± 4000 | — | — | OSL | Lee 2006 |
| Mansuri | 36.37′, 127.19′ | 10th layer | 103,000 ± 8000 | — | — | OSL | Lee 2006 |
| Unjung | 37.45′, 126.52′ | cultural layer | 40,300 ± 2000 | SNU08-474 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2006 |
| Unjung | 37.45′, 126.52′ | cultural layer | 39,500 ± 2000 | SNU08-475 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee 2006 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | 1st cultural layer | 12,700 ± 200 | SNU03-849 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | 1st cultural layer | 12,730 ± 320 | SNU03-850 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | 1st cultural layer | 11,850 ± 190 | SNU03-852 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | 1st cultural layer | 11,950 ± 110 | SNU03-854 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | 2nd cultural layer | >48,000 | SNU04-781 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | peat layer between 1st & 2nd | 35,900 ± 1200 | SNU04-786 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | same as above | 43,100 ± 1500 | SNU04-851 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | same as above | 44,700 ± 1500 | SNU04-783 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | same as above | 35,900 ± 1200 | SNU04-786 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | same as above | >48,000 | SNU04-784 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Songduri | 36.52′, 127.38′ | same as above | >48,000 | SNU04-785 | peat | — | Lee and Kong 2004 |
| Jangdongri | 34.44′, 126.59′ | 1st cultural layer | 17,500 ± 100 | Geochron | — | Late Paleolithic | Chung and Lee 2006 |
| Jangdongri | 34.44′, 126.59′ | 2nd cultural layer | 22,350 ± 100 | Geochron | — | Late Paleolithic | Chung and Lee 2006 |
| Hwaderi | 37.58′, 127.20′ | 2nd cultural layer | 31,200 ± 900 | SNU03-340 | charcoal | Late Paleolithic | Choi 2007 |
| Hwaderi | 37.58′, 127.20′ | 1st cultural layer | 22,000 ± 1000 | — | — | OSL | Choi 2007 |
| Hwaderi | 37.58′, 127.20′ | 2nd cultural layer | 30,000 ± 1700 | — | — | OSL | Choi 2007 |
| Hwaderi | 37.58′, 127.20′ | 3rd cultural layer | 39,000 ± 1400 | — | — | OSL | Choi 2007 |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | 1st shell layer | 5,330 ± 40 | SNU05-343 | charcoal | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | storage pit | 4,340 ± 40 | SNU05-344 | — | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | storage pit | 4,650 ± 60 | SNU06-201 | acorn | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | outdoor fireplace | 3,560 ± 60 | SNU06-202 | charcoal | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | 3rd shell layer | 6,270 ± 60 | SNU06-203 | charcoal | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | 5th shell layer | 6,550 ± 50 | SNU06-204 | wood frag. | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | storage pit | 4,420 ± 50 | SNU06-205 | wood frag. | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | storage pit | 4,900 ± 50 | SNU06-206 | wood | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | outdoor fireplace | 3,540 ± 60 | SNU06-207 | charcoal | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | inner part of boat plank | 6,670 ± 60 | SNU06-208 | charcoal | Neolithic | Crawford and Lee 2003 |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | 2nd shell layer | 5,970 ± 60 | SNU06-209 | wood frag. | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | 35.37′, 128.30′ | 4th shell layer | 6,390 ± 60 | SNU06-210 | wood frag. | Neolithic | — |
| Bibongri | layer III-1 | 6,260 ± 40 | SNU00-394 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-2b | 6,110 ± 80 | SNU00-395 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-3c | 6,420 ± 110 | SNU00-397 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-3c | 5,700 ± 60 | SNU00-398 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-3a | 6,480 ± 120 | SNU00-385 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-2b | 6,260 ± 250 | SNU00-386 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-2b | 6,740 ± 30 | SNU00-403 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-2b | 6,440 ± 90 | SNU00-403-1 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-6 | 6,260 ± 40 | SNU00-387 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-6 | 6,330 ± 40 | SNU00-388 | same as above | Neolithic | — | |
| Bibongri | layer III-3a | 5,930 ± 110 | SNU00-390 | acorns | Neolithic | — |
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